A study of ancient teeth belonging to modern humans and Neanderthals of the Aurignacian culture at Manot Cave in Israel is shedding new light on human migration from Europe to the Levant around 40,000 years ago. The Levant includes the historic areas of Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, and Syria with close proximity to Egypt.
The Neanderthals were on the verge of extinction 40,000 years ago when they came into contact with Homo sapiens, also known as modern humans. Groups of Neanderthals in southern Europe survived long enough to make their final eagle talon necklaces, one of which was found recently by researchers in Spain in Foradada Cave just two miles inland from the Mediterranean coast.
Just over 2,000 miles away, another group of researchers led by Dr. Rachel Sarig of Tel Aviv University School of Dental Medicine analyzed six teeth that were uncovered in Manot Cave.
Discovered in 2008, Manot Cave is a significant prehistoric location noted for the finding of an ancient human skullcap from 54,700 that turned out to be the oldest human remains outside of Africa and proved modern humans lived alongside Neanderthals and interbred with them, which has been shown by genetic studies.
Manot Cave in Israel, where the teeth were found. Image via Wikimedia.
Many of the artifacts found in the cave since then belong to the Aurignacian culture, an Upper Paleolithic culture of humans that existed in Europe at the time.
The Aurignacian culture first appeared in Europe some 43,000 years ago and is known for having produced bone tools, artifacts, jewelry, musical instruments, and cave paintings. For years, researchers believed that modern man’s entry into Europe led to the rapid decline of the Neanderthals, either through violent confrontation or wresting control of food sources. But recent genetic studies have shown that Neanderthals did not vanish. Instead, they assimilated into modern human immigrant populations. The new study adds further evidence to substantiate this theory.
In fact, the oldest known musical instrument is credited to the Aurignacian culture in the form of a 35,000 to 40,000-year-old bone flute found in Germany in 2008, the same year a construction crew accidentally found the Manot Cave.
The bone flute made by the Aurignacian culture is regarded as the oldest musical instrument ever found. Image via Wikimedia.
Sometime during this period 40,000 years ago, however, a migration consisting of these Aurignacian humans along with Neanderthals migrated to the Levant, thus introducing the culture to humans and Neanderthals there, which is how evidence of the culture likely ended up in the cave.
This study presents the dental remains discovered at Manot Cave (MC), Western Galilee, Israel. The cave contains evidence for human occupation during the Early Upper Paleolithic period (46–33 ka) mainly of Early Ahmarian (∼46–42 ka) and Levantine Aurignacian (∼38–34 ka) cultural levels. Six teeth (three deciduous and three permanent) were found at the site, of which four could be thoroughly analyzed. The morphology of the teeth was qualitatively described and analyzed using traditional and geometric morphometric methods. A large comparative sample was used in order to assess the morphological affiliation of the Manot specimens with other Homo groups. The results provided equivocal signals: the upper first premolar is probably modern human; the upper deciduous second molar and the upper second permanent molar might be modern humans; the lower second deciduous molar might be Neanderthal.
Ancient teeth found in Manot Cave that were examined by the team. Image via Tel Aviv University.
While the results were not conclusive, they suggested that humans migrated from Europe to the Levant 40,000 years ago, resulting in a new culture that persisted for a few thousand years before it mysteriously disappeared.
“Unlike bones, teeth are preserved well because they’re made of enamel, the substance in the human body most resistant to the effects of time,” Dr. Sarig said in a press release. “The structure, shape, and topography or surface bumps of the teeth provided important genetic information. We were able to use the external and internal shape of the teeth found in the cave to associate them with typical hominin groups: Neanderthal and Homo sapiens. Following the migration of European populations into this region, a new culture existed in the Levant for a short time, approximately 2,000-3,000 years. It then disappeared for no apparent reason. Now we know something about their makeup.”
Indeed, the population that migrated to the Levant from Europe not only included humans but also Neanderthals along with any hybrid individuals resulting from interbreeding between the two species.
Neanderthal DNA continues to survive within our species today, clear proof that humans and Neanderthals successfully interbred, which may have contributed to the demise of the Neanderthal species as a whole. Perhaps they were not wiped out by violence or disease, but rather by genetic assimilation or a combination of all three.
The same may have been true of the Denisovans, who interbred with Neanderthals. Only the offspring produced by such interbreeding between these two human species were likely sterile, therefore incapable of further reproduction to pass along the genetic code. However, Denisovans apparently had more success interbreeding with humans, as their DNA survives in some humans today such as Australian Aborigines and others.
This study is also significant because it’s the first time scientists have found human remains dating from this particular period, adding to our scant knowledge of this time period.
“Until now, we hadn’t found any human remains with valid dating from this period in Israel,” Professor Israel Hershkovitz, head of the Dan David Center said. “So the group remains a mystery. This groundbreaking study contributes to the story of the population responsible for some of the world’s most important cultural contributions.”
In addition to the flute, which was made out of a vulture wing bone, the Aurignacian culture produced stone tools characterized by blades instead of flakes along with tools made of bones and antlers. The culture also produced cave art and figurines further defining it.
Genetic studies have previously proved useful in discovering yet another migration from Europe to the Levant around 35,000 years later during the 12th century BC that would have major influence on biblical history. After testing remains uncovered in the ancient city of Ashkelon, researchers found that Philistines, portrayed as villains in the Bible, came from Europe to settle in Israel, where they had confrontations with the Israelites. The European genes eventually disappeared over the centuries as the Philistines expanded their gene pool in the region.
These two discoveries are not only historic, but they are also examples of scientific advancement that has increased our knowledge of peoples and time periods through the ages. This knowledge can help us understand ourselves better today. As technology improves, it’s only a matter of time.
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There are few creatures surrounded by more mystery, wonder, and fascination than unicorns. Some say they existed and then died out. Others insist unicorns are nothing more than a myth; a creation of human imagination.
So, what exactly is the truth? Did unicorns once walk the planet? Well, kind of.
Back in 2016, the scientific world was abuzz with the discovery of a fossilized remain found in Siberia. As the Washington Postreported at the time:
“According to a study published last month in the American Journal of Applied Science, a species called Elasmotherium sibiricum — the ‘Siberian unicorn’ — went extinct much later than previously thought. Researchers from Tomsk State University believe they’ve found fossil evidence of a Siberian unicorn prancing around just 29,000 years ago — more than 300,000 years after they were thought to have gone extinct.”
Granted, what you see above looks more like a rhino than a unicorn, but he does have one heck of a horn sprouting from his head, which makes him a form of unicorn. As Ancient Origins notes, the Siberian unicorn was a massive animal:
“The E. sibiricum , was the size of a mammoth, covered in hair, and is thought to have had a large horn protruding from its forehead, hence the title ‘Siberian Unicorn.’ According to early estimated descriptions, the beast stood around 2 meters (6.56 ft.) tall, 4.5 meters (14.76 ft.) long, and weighted an impressive 4 tons.”
For hundreds of years, the only evidence to prove that such a creature existed was a jawbone unearthed in 1808 by Johan Fischer von Waldheim, the Dirécteur Perpétuel of the Natural History Museum at Moscow University. This allowed for the species to be named.
The search for more proof took place in vain until March of 2016, when an entire fossilized skull was found:
“In March 2016, a beautifully preserved skull was found in the Pavlodar region of Kazakhstan proving that the animal lived until the Pleistocene era, some 29,000 years ago, instead of the previously held belief that they had died out 350,000 years ago. Based on the size and condition of the skull, it has been suggested that it was a very old male, but it is uncertain how the beast died.”
Fossil of Elasmotherium head on display at the Natural History Museum, London (Via Wikipedia)
Unicorn Legends
Throughout history, in nearly every culture, the idea of unicorns has existed:
“Legends of the unicorn, or a beast with a single horn, have been around for millennia in China and Eastern Europe. The Chinese ‘K’i-lin,’referring to some sort of beast, was translated into Turkish and Mongolic languages and lore. While the writers in all these languages did not know how to describe the beast, one common theme was the single horn, along with their vast stature.”
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And it appears that the Siberian unicorn may well have been the creature that piqued the interest of mankind over the centuries.
In 1866, Vasily Radlov was told about a legend among the Yakut people of Siberia of a “huge black bull” that had been felled by a single spear. The creature was said to be so massive that its body had to be transported on a sled. And there are similar legends in the area which include “a large white or blue woolly bull” that had a horn protruding from its forehead.
Many cultures have had a legend of the unicorn that fits the description of the Siberian creature (Public Domain)
In Russia, ballads were written about the Siberian unicorn:
“From medieval Northern Russia comes a collection of ballads, called ‘Golubinaia kniga’ or ‘The Book of the Dove,’ coming from Zoroastrianism, but with Christian overtones. These ballads show a righteous unicorn battling a lion, representing lies. The unicorn of these tales lived in a Holy mountain, and it was believed to be the mother and father of all animals. This creature saved the world from drought by digging springs of pure and clean water with its horn. At night, it wandered the plains and forged a path with that very same horn.”
The same creature also makes an appearance in other religious texts, but usually in a symbolic fashion instead of as a real entity.:
“The Arabo-Persian word for unicorn actually conflates unicorn and rhinoceros, looking to the rhinoceros as a bringer of truth and good in the world. In Christianity, the single horn is seen as a symbol of monotheism.”
Maiden with Unicorn, 15th-century tapestry (Public Domain)
What Became of the Siberian Unicorn?
Since we have fossil evidence that proves a large beast with a single horn was indeed real, that begs the question: What happened to these creatures. Unfortunately, answers to that question are as shrouded in mystery as unicorns themselves:
“Residue findings show a long habitation of these ancient rhinos in the southeast of the West Siberian Plain. However, there is no clear reason why the final Siberian unicorns died out. Researchers have been looking into the specific environmental factors that may have caused the extinction of this species, as it may lead to answers to the extinction facing various species today.”
More research and more discoveries are necessary if we are to ever fully understand and appreciate the one unicorn that did likely make an appearance on Earth.
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An excavation in a cave occupied by Neanderthals in Spain has uncovered what is considered to be the last necklace ever made by our distant cousins, which features eagle talons that had symbolic meaning and value.
Around 40,000 years ago, Neanderthals roamed the Iberian peninsula and occupied caves near the Mediterranean coast. One such cave, known as Foradada Cave, is located in the Province of Valencia just over two miles from the sea.
Foradada Cave in Spain, where Neanderthals lived and where the team found eagle talons used to make the last Neanderthal necklaces. Image via Science Advances.Foradada Cave from the inside. Image via Science Advances.
Excavations there have been ongoing since the 1970s. But in 2010, researchers uncovered something extraordinary. They found a complete Neanderthal skeleton, the most complete ever discovered on the Iberian peninsula.
Near the end of their existence, the last Neanderthals in Europe were part of châtelperronian culture (CP), a time when the hominid species made distinctive cutting tools and came into contact with Homo sapiens, also known as modern humans.
Neanderthal cutting tools distinctive of the Châtelperronian culture. Image via Science Advances.
During a recent excavation, researchers made yet another fascinating discovery that sheds even more light on this period of Neanderthal history and culture in the form of eagle talons, which may have been used to make jewelry or ornaments to symbolize status.
Evidence for the symbolic behavior of Neanderthals in the use of personal ornaments is relatively scarce. Among the few ornaments documented, eagle talons, which were presumably used as pendants, are the most frequently recorded.
This phenomenon appears concentrated in a specific area of southern Europe during a span of 80 thousand years. Here, we present the analysis of one eagle pedal phalange recovered from the Châtelperronian layer of Foradada Cave (Spain).
Our research broadens the known geographical and temporal range of this symbolic behavior, providing the first documentation of its use among the Iberian populations, as well as of its oldest use in the peninsula.
The recurrent appearance of large raptor talons throughout the Middle Paleolithic time frame, including their presence among the last Neanderthal populations, raises the question of the survival of some cultural elements of the Middle Paleolithic into the transitional Middle to Upper Paleolithic assemblages and beyond.
Based on the marks made on the bones, the researchers believe that the eagle talons were arranged as a necklace, making it one of the final pieces of jewelry made by Neanderthals before they went extinct.
Marks cut into eagle talons by Neanderthals can be seen prominently in this series of images. Image via Science Advances.
“This would be the last necklace made by the Neanderthals,” Institute of Evolution in Africa researcher Antonio Rodríguez-Hidalgo said in a press release by the University of Barcelona. “Neanderthals used eagle talons as symbolic elements, probably as necklace pendants, from the beginnings of the mid Palaeolithic.”
The study details the markings found on several eagle talons.
The phalange presents 12 cut marks on the dorsal side of the diaphysis, appearing along approximately two-thirds of the phalanx’s total length. Most of the cuts are oriented obliquely to the principal axis of the bone, ranging from the proximal epiphysis to distal extremity of the bone.
These striae are found oriented parallel among themselves. All these oblique cuts are deep and present both composed striae and associated shoulder effect as deep as the principal groove like those produced by retouched stone tools. An additional incision can be observed, presented obliquely oriented with a longitudinal tendency.
This last mark is more superficial than the previous marks and superimposes all other incisions. The 12 incisions observed present an average length of 3.67 mm and width of 0.23 mm. A general increase in the opening angle of each groove can be observed, while a similar pattern is observed through a decrease in depth of each profile along the groove.
Past findings of eagle talons in southern Europe, such as those found in Mandrin cave, support this new discovery at Foradada cave, as does a previous study in 2015 of several polished eagle talons found at the turn of the 20th century.
Cutting marks on eagle talons found in Mandrin cave in southern Europe back up the recent finding. Image via Wikimedia.
The researchers also agree that eagle talons, along with talons of different bird species, were used as a form of communication.
Current inferences regarding talons interpreted as ornaments highlight them to be “surviving traces of ancient human communication”, and precisely because of this, talons of different birds with different appearances and behaviors could transmit different messages about the identity of the bearer. In contrast, these archaic populations might not have needed to taxonomically differentiate between large raptor species, regardless of whether they could or not.
However, the team pointed out that the hypothesis that these talons were used as ornaments has been investigated with caution because it’s hard to know for sure exactly what these talons meant to the Neanderthals or what they were used for. But they argue that their research makes it clear the symbolic use of eagle talons by Neanderthals was a tradition for thousands of years, and different sizes may have helped separate groups recognize each other. It’s similar to how early humans used seashells as ornaments and necklaces, only Neanderthal use of eagle talons predates human use of seashells in Africa and the Levant.
Although researchers tend to agree on the symbolic nature of talons, their definition of these elements as personal ornaments has been explored with prudence. Most have advocated defining the talons as “supposed ornaments,” while others have opted to refer to these finds directly as an example of “Neanderthal jewelry”.
In accepting the use of talons as personal ornaments, this can be considered a tradition that predates any other manifestation of symbolism among Neanderthals, especially those in which seashells play a central role. If not, this manifestation also entails important implications for the emergence of symbolism and behavioral modernity, although further investigation is necessary to establish the functionality behind these objects.
Regardless of whether the talons were hanging “beads,” part of necklaces, earrings, or any other elements for which there are no current parallels, the case of Foradada indicates the symbolic use of talons to be a well-rooted tradition among the Neanderthals of southern Europe for more than 80 millennia.
Furthermore, our research suggests the presence of a common cultural territory in which the meaning conveyed by these large-raptor talons could probably be recognized by individuals from different groups. To date, the total absence of raptor talon exploitation in the African Paleolithic record forces us to ask ourselves for the direction of cultural interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans.
The team was also able to identify the talons as belonging to the Iberian or Spanish Imperial Eagle or a close relative, thus contributing to the evolutionary history of the eagle as well.
Foradada specimens can contribute to our knowledge of the evolutionary history of imperial eagles. If the specimens presented in this paper belong to A. adalberti or their ancestor, then they would be the oldest recorded find of the species so far. If these remains belong to the species A. heliaca, then it would be the first occurrence of this species in the fossil record of Iberia (for the whole of the Quaternary, Pleistocene, or Holocene periods).
The Spanish Imperial Eagle was valued by Neanderthals for its talons. Image via Wikimedia.
And it’s not just Neanderthals who made necklaces out of eagle talons. Humans continued this Neanderthal tradition by making jewelry using talons, but also with bear claws and the teeth and claws of many different animals. Some of the best examples of this are found in Native American culture.
Needless to say, this is an extraordinary find that only adds to the evidence that Neanderthal culture is more complex than we have previously believed, all while providing new information about them with the added bonus of new knowledge about the evolution of imperial eagles. It’s the kind of find that scientists dream of making.
