Reliably quantifying and characterizing the quantum states of various systems is highly advantageous for both quantum physics research and the development of quantum technologies. Quantifying these states typically entails performing several measurements and reconstructing them via a process known as quantum-state tomography.

When a gas is highly energized, its electrons get torn from the parent atoms, resulting in a plasma—the oft-forgotten fourth state of matter (along with solid, liquid, and gas). When we think of plasmas, we normally think of extremely hot phenomena such as the sun, lightning, or maybe arc welding, but there are situations in which icy cold particles are associated with plasmas. Images of distant molecular clouds from the James Webb Space Telescope feature such hot–cold interactions, with frozen dust illuminated by pockets of shocked gas and newborn stars.