Over a thousand “mustatils,” ancient rock formations in Saudi Arabia, are now the earliest ritual landscape structures ever identified. Researchers date them around 7,000 years old. Thus, they may be over 2,000 years older than Stonehenge or the oldest Egyptian pyramids. Three years ago, the researchers announced discovering 400 mustatils but now we know there are hundreds more.
Although it’s not certain, they suggest that a Neolithic cattle cult sacrificed animals inside the formations. Possibly, the cult dedicated an offering to a deity associated with cattle. However, the god or gods in question are unknown.
Rock art in the area showed depicted cattle hunting and herding. The artwork provides some context at a time when writing wasn’t yet invented. About 900 years later, archaeological evidence of a cattle cult in the south of Arabia has been found, say the researchers.
Mustatils Located with Google Earth
In northwest Saudi Arabia, mustatils are widespread and numerous, scattered over 77,000 square miles. However, we’re only now finding out after an aerial survey funded by the government. According to LiveScience, Google Earth, and aerial imaging helped in the discoveries.
“These structures can now be interpreted as ritual installations dating back to the late sixth millennium B.C., with recent excavations revealing the earliest evidence for [a] cattle cult in the Arabian Peninsula,” a team of researchers wrote in a paper published April 30 in the journal Antiquity.
Mustatil translates to “rectangle” in Arabic, but some mustatils also incorporate circles. Others look like a capital letter I with stones built up at each end.
Possibly, some circular shapes were built later than the rectangular walls in some cases. Previously, researchers reported finding “kites” used to hunt animals built over the older gate structures.
Notably, some mustatil groupings look like rows of keyholes with a circle at one end and a widening quadrilateral shape. (see video below)
In some cases, a niche at the “head” of the mustatil was created of larger stones. Inside this niche chamber, ancient animal bones have been found in at least one case.
Rather than belonging only to cattle, the bones come from cattle, sheep, goats, and gazelle. Therefore, finding such animals in the now arid desert suggests it used to be a more lush, hospitable place.
See the video by LiveScience below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tr8vwpuwQs0
Long, Narrow, Short Gates
At first glance, one wonders if these structures were designed to be seen from the air, like the Nazca Lines in Peru.
Since the walls are under 1.6 feet tall, it’s unlikely they served as cattle pens. However, archaeologists call them “gates,” and they can be 1,500 feet long, over four times the length of an NFL football field. (360 feet)
In just one mustatil, the researchers estimated ancient people moved over 12,000 tons of basalt stone. By their estimates, it would take dozens of people months to complete just one structure.
For some reason, the ancient people grouped the mustatils in some places, perhaps only using them once. In some cases, the structures are in prominent locations, while others they seem almost hidden.
In some examples, an upright orthostat stone is found in the central chamber.
” Archaeological work indicates that some of the mustatils had a chamber in the center made of stone walls surrounding an open area with a standing stone in the center,” reported LiveScience.
Thus, the mustatils contain some of the oldest ritual standing stones in the world.
Given the long, narrow formations, researchers suspect that people walked along the narrow entrance in a single file to the head, where they offered the sacrifice, similar to worldwide ancient standing stones.
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Created on Volcanoes
Strangely, some mustatils are found on the slopes of volcanoes in the Harret Khaybar region. Although such sites are barren today, it’s possible the area was more vegetated thousands of years ago.
In some instances, lava flows covered some of the gates, suggesting they predated the flows. Whatever the case, it’s all very mysterious.
“We are not quite sure why they were constructed on volcanoes,” said the study director, Hugh Thomas. “Perhaps, by placing some of these structures on prominent landscape features like volcanoes, they may have been used as landscape markers or perhaps territorial markers denoting pastoral grazing areas for specific groups,” Thomas said.
Hopefully, further study will reveal more details about why ancient people created so many mustatils. Who knows what else will be discovered by pouring over images from Google Earth?
The KM3NeT collaboration is a large research group involved in the operation of a neutrino telescope network in the deep Mediterranean Sea, with the aim of detecting high-energy neutrino events. These are rare and fleeting high-energy interactions between neutrinos, particles with an extremely low mass that are sometimes referred to as “ghost particles.”
Grass can take an “evolutionary shortcut,” swiping genes from neighboring species to get an advantage. That’s what University of Sheffield researchers found out in a new study. Thus, some grasses are naturally genetically modified. However, they are doing it all on their own, without carcinogenic chemicals.
“Grasses are taking an evolutionary shortcut by borrowing genes from their neighbors. By using genetic detective work to trace the origin of each gene, we found over 100 examples where the gene had a significantly different history to the species it was found in,” said senior author Dr. Luke Dunning.
By “stealing” genes through lateral gene transfer, lowly grass gets an edge on other species. For gardeners worldwide, it all makes sense now. After all, grass seems to thrive under just about any conditions – unless you want it to grow.
Grasses Hack the System
By studying the history of each grass gene, the researchers found hundreds originating from distantly related species.
Thus, some grasses can hack the system, “supplementing their genetic information with stolen genetic secrets,” writes Phys.org.
By obtaining genes from neighboring plants, they become adaptable, grow faster and stronger.
Somehow, the grasses can even take advantage of specific genes. However, scientists don’t yet know the biological mechanism involved. Notably, some of our most common crops may be doing it regularly.
“Whilst only a relatively small proportion of genes are transferred between species; this process potentially allows grasses to cherry-pick information from other species. This likely gives them huge advantages and may allow them to adapt to their surrounding environment quicker,” said Dunning.
If an ordinary grass can re-engineer its genome, it certainly paints human gene manipulation in a humble light.
Natural GMOs
Fortunately, the grasses in the study are those humans depend on most for food: wheat, maize, rice, and barley. By studying how the plants naturally change, scientists hope we can apply it to naturally modify crops.
In particular, grasses with a rhizome appear more likely to engage in gene swapping. A rhizome is a modified stem running underground like a root that stores nutrients. Along the rhizome, nodes can send new roots down into the soil.
Unfortunately, many plants with rhizomes are invasive, and part of a rhizome can grow a new plant asexually (including poison ivy).
A New Leaf to Darwinian Evolution
As the University of Sheffield researchers point out, grass doesn’t fit traditional Darwinian evolution. Rather than pass genes from parent to offspring, grass can “steal genes” from neighbors. Thus, they bypass natural selection.
Consequently, no sexual reproduction is involved. Furthermore, gene modification appeared to be widespread.
See more about how Darwin came up with the Theory of Evolution from the BBC below
How Does Grass Do It?
For now, scientists are stumped about how grass modifies its genes.
“Foreign DNA was detected in the genomes of 13 of the 17 grasses sampled, including crops such as maize, millet and wheat. The million-dollar question is, how are these genes moving between species? In truth, we don’t know and we may never know for certain as there are several potential mechanisms and more than one may be involved,” wrote Dunning.
Perhaps, the rhizomes are rubbing up against neighboring plants, resulting in “root fusion,” they suggest. Notably, a similar transfer of DNA was observed in grafted tobacco plants.
By studying the phenomena, scientists may find ways to modify valuable food crops. Importantly, this may come just in time as we confront climate change.
Other Organisms Do it Too
Although the grass’s abilities are rare in other plants and animals, other lifeforms can do it:
In other instances, animals can incorporate algae into their bodies, rendering them photosynthetic. One species of aphid became solar-powered, producing carotenoids other animals require from plants.
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Researchers in the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) and the Faculty of Arts and Sciences have devised a new way to make some of the smallest, smoothest mirrors ever created for controlling single particles of light, known as photons. These mirrors could play key roles in future quantum computers, quantum networks, integrated lasers, environmental sensing equipment, and more.
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